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Glossary
A - B - C - D - E - F- G - H - I - J - K - L - M
A
ALTERNATIVE METHODS – Biological methods that do not employ animals: they can be cell culture, mathematical methods, volunteer patients. Nowadays scientists work towards the application of the three R’s: replacement (replacing 'higher' animals with 'lower' animals), reduction (optimizing the number of animals needed to perform an experiment or teach a concept), refinement (refining experimental protocols to minimize pain or distress).
ANGINA - A syndrome characterized by brief paroxysmal attacks of chest pain, caused by insufficient oxygenation of the heart muscles and due to a narrowing of the blood vessels. It generally lasts less than 10 minutes.
ANGIOGENESIS - The process of formation and developing of new blood vessels. Also called vasculogenesis.
(THERAPEUTIC) ANGIOGENESIS – A promising strategy to force the regrowth of blood vessels on demand, with the aim of restoring the blood flow in an injured area. It exploits existing vessel wall cells, or recruits circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs).
ANGIOPLASTY - Surgical procedure to enlarge an obstructed artery with a balloon catheter used to flatten the plaque against the vessel wall and open up the artery.
ANIMAL MODEL – Animal that develops a spontaneous or induced disease much similar to a human one, and that can be treated to test drug effectiveness and efficacy.
AORTA - The largest artery that carries blood from the heart to the body.
APOPTOSIS – Cellular suicide triggered by specific molecular messages. Cells activate this mode of self-killing whenever the DNA is markedly damaged and cannot be repaired.
ARMY STUDY – (ARMY = Atherosclerosis Risk Factors in Male Youngsters). An Austrian study conducted in a sample of 141 17- to 18-year-old white males homogenous in age and sex, to confirm the hypothesis that atherosclerosis begins in the first decades of life and sees the involvement of the immune system.
ARRHYTHMIAS - Any anomaly of the regular rhythmic beating of the heart, either in time or force. Also called cardiac dysrhythmias.
ARTERIOGRAPHY – A diagnostic examination that couples x-rays and a special dye to check the inner wall of the arteries. Can be used on heart, brain, kidney and other organs and allows the identification of damages or clots that obstruct the bllod flow.
ARTERIOLE - Any of the thinner branches of an artery that ends in capillaries.
ARTERY - A large-diameter vessel that carries blood rich in oxygen content away from the heart through the body.
ASTHMA – It is a chronic disease of the respiratory system causing constriction of the airway, inflammation and symptoms like wheezing (a whistling sound when you breathe), coughing, chest tightness, and trouble breathing, especially at night and in the early morning.
ATHEROSCLEROSIS - A process of progressive clogging and narrowing of medium-sized and large arteries as a result of fat deposits on their inner walls. As a consequence the blood flow to the heart decreases and this condition can frequently lead to a heart attack.
ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE - Deposit along the inner walls of an artery, mainly composed of lipids or fats. It can lead to the blood clots formation and cause heart attacks and stroke.
ATRIOVENTRICULAR ORIFICE - The opening through which the atrium and ventricle of each side of the heart can communicate. This orifice can be opened or closed off by an atrioventricular valve.
ATRIUM - One of the two top chambers of the heart. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava and forces it into the right ventricle, which then sends it to the lungs. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary veins and pumps it down into the left ventricle, which delivers it to the body.
B
B CELLS - Type of white blood cell and, specifically, a type of lymphocyte.
BICUSPID VALVE - The left atrioventricular valve of the heart, situated between the left atrium and the left ventricle. Also known as mitral valve, it prevents the blood in the ventricle from returning to the atrium.
BLOOD PRESSURE - Pressure exerted by the blood upon the walls of the arteries. It is produced primarily by the contraction of the heart muscle.
BRUNECK STUDY – A ten-years investigation (1990-2000) aimed at identifying the incidence of metabolic disease, atherosclerosis and their risk factors in the general population. It followed 915 men and women aged 40 to 80 years
BYPASS - A surgical procedure performed to shunt blood around an obstruction.
C
CAPILLARIES - Tiny blood vessels connecting arterioles with venules. The capillaries form a fine network throughout the body which serves to distribute oxygenated blood and nutrients from arteries to the tissue cells of the body and to feed deoxygenated blood from the tissues back into the veins.
CARDIAC DYSRHYTHMIAS - See Arrhythmias
CARDIOMYOPATHY - Progressive disease of the heart muscle that is marked especially by abnormally enlargement, thickening and stiffening of the heart.
CARDIOVERSION - Electrical shock administered to a patient whose heart is beating irregularly (arrhythmia). After the pulse has reached the cardiac tissue, the regular pace is restored.
COHORT - A selected group of people involved in clinical trials.
CHOLESTEROL - A lipid (fatty substance) present on the membrane of cells and in the blood flow. Blood cholesterol, originating from dietary intake and liver production, is combined with proteins called lipoproteins. The cholesterol combined with “low-density lipoprotein” is called LDL cholesterol or "bad" cholesterol, because it increases the risk of coronary heart disease; the cholesterol combined with “high-density lipoproteins” is called HDL cholesterol or "good" cholesterol, because it lowers the risk of coronary heart disease.
CLOT - (blood clot) a solid mass or clump made of coagulated blood that may jam inside the smallest arteries or veins, obstructing the regular blood flow.
CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE - Defect or malformation of the heart or the blood vessels, present since birth.
CORONARY ARTERIES - Two arteries that emerge from the aorta supply the tissues of the heart with blood rich in oxygen.
CORONARY CIRCULATION - The own vascular system of the heart muscle.
CORONARY HEART DISEASE (CHD) - A condition caused by the atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries that reduces the blood flow to the heart muscle.
CORONARY SINUS - A small channel for venous blood that drains blood from the heart wall.
D
DEOXYHEMOGLOBIN - The form of hemoglobin without oxygen.
DIABETES - A chronic disease associated with abnormally high levels of the sugar glucose in the blood.
DIASTOLE - The time period of relaxation (dilatation) of the heart, during which the cavities of the heart fill with blood.
DIET - The daily consumption of foods and drinks needed to live
E
ENDOCARDITIS - Inflammation of the inner lining of the heart. It may be caused by bacteria entering the heart and adhering to its wall. The presence of an endothelial lesion promotes the bacterial adhesion, and the whole process may damage the heart valves. If left untreated it may lead to death.
ENDOTHELIAL ACTIVATION - A condition characterized by functional alterations that modify the appearance of the endothelium. Proinflammatory and procoagulatory substances can be found around the activated endothelium. Often an unusual vessel enlargement can be observed.
ENDOTHELIAL CELLS - Cells that line all the vessels of the circulatory system, controlling the transit of molecules and materials, and the flow of white blood cells inwardly and outwardly the bloodstream. Healthy endothelial cells promote the smooth flowing of blood. When they are damaged they lose their functions: this is a hallmark for vascular disease and often the first step to atherosclerosis.
ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION - A condition in which the endothelium gets damaged, so that the walls of the arteries loose their elasticity and become hard and thick, reducing in turn the supply of blood to the tissues.
ENDOTHELIUM - A thin layer of thin flattened cells that lines the internal walls of blood vessels (veins and arteries).
EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL - A flowchart of reactions and analysis that need to be sequentially carried out, in order to achieve the presumed result.
F
FATS - A class of nutrients our body needs to produce energy. Saturated fats can be mainly found in foods of animal origin (meat, milk, butter, cheese). Unsaturated fats are usually of vegetable origins.
FIBRIN - An insoluble protein formed from the fibrinogen, involved in the process of blood clotting. It is part of the so-called complement cascade, a number of enzymatic reactions that ultimately lead to the formation of a blood clot. When a wound occurs, fibrin is deposited around the lesion and hardens quickly. In doing so, it halts the bleeding.
G
Genetics – A biological discipline that investigates the role of genes in living organisms.
Gene therapy – A medical approach to some diseases that involves the insertion of a healthy gene in place of one that is unable to work properly. In this way a missing function can be restored. Alternatively, the term indicates the introduction of a completely new gene which can endow an organism with a novel property, in the form of a newly synthesized protein.
Glycolipid – A lipid, or fat molecule, bound to sugar molecules with a covalent (strong) bond.
Granulocyte – A family of white blood cells dubbed in this way because their body (or cytoplasm) contains specific granules that assume different colours when chemically treated. As they nucleus usually shows three lobes, they are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN or PML).
H
Haemoglobin – A protein hosted inside the red blood cells in charge of carrying oxygen in the organism, while retrieving the carbon dioxide (CO2) generated by the metabolic processes. It gives the blood cells their red colour.
HDL – Acronym for High Density Lipoprotein, a family of proteins that carries fatty acids and cholesterol from the tissues to the liver. HDL-bound cholesterol is also known as “good cholesterol” as it is removed from the arteries and carried back to the liver, where it can be re-cycled or eliminated (a process called reverse cholesterol transport).
Heart attack - Also called myocardial infarction. It is the sudden interruption or severe lack of blood supply to the heart muscle, frequently caused by the occlusion or obstruction of a coronary artery. It is often accompanied by intense chest pain.
Heart failure - It is a condition in which the heart loses the ability to pump enough blood to the body's tissues. Due to this event, organs and tissues are not properly oxygenated and do not receive enough nutrients to function properly.
Hypercholesterolemia – A word meaning high blood cholesterol, indicating a metabolic disequilibrium due to blood cholesterol levels higher than normal. It can be sporadic (with no family history) or familial: in the latter case, it has a genetic origin. This condition can contribute to a number of diseases, and in particular to cardiovascular disease. Cholesterol, however, is an essential component of the human cells.
Hyperlipidemia – Metabolic defect characterised by an increase of lipids and lipoptoreins in the blood. Depending on the type of lipids concerned, it is known as hypercholesterolemia, hypertriglyceridemia or combined hyperlipidemia. The increase in the blood concentration of lipids represents a major cardiovascular risk factor.
Hypertension - High arterial blood pressure.
Hypoxia - A deficiency of oxygen affecting the tissues of the body.
I
Immune response - A complex response against an antigen, namely a foreign element that the body perceives as dangerous. The response can be aspecific: in this case the body reacts without paying particular attention to the enemy menacing the organism. Alternatively, the body can mount a specific response involving cellular elements that undergo a number of differentiation processes, in order to fight the invader more effectively. The cells involved in the specific response are Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes, T Helper Lymphocytes and B lymphocytes.
Immune system – An extraordinary system of cellular and chemical components potentially active against all the microrganisms that might jeopardize the human body. It is in charge of protecting us from potentially harmful agents such as viruses, bacteria, parasites and chemical compounds. Its effectiveness depends on the ability to tell the “self” from the “non self”. Two major arms are active: the aspecific immunity, our critical front line against invasions ready to intervene; and the specific immunity, slower but more precise.
Incidence – Is the measure of the risk of developing a new condition within a specific time period.
Inferior vena cava - A large vein that receives deoxygenated blood from the lower part of the body and delivers it to the right atrium of the heart. The inferior vena cava is the largest vein in the human body.
Inflammation – A physiological defensive mechanism by which vascular tissues respond to harmful stimuli. It becomes activated when the body fights against chemical, physical or biological agents. The acute inflammation consists of the initial response to the harmful stimuli, built up by plasma and leukocytes that migrate from the blood to the injured site. When this condition persists, the inflammation becomes chronic, leading to a shift in the cells that intervene to heal the tissue. In the typical manifestations of an inflammation, the involved area is swollen, red, hot, and in pain.
Interatrial septum - The wall separating the upper chambers (atria) of the heart from one another. It forms early during the foetal development (in the first and second months) during the intrauterine life.
Interventional treatment - A local endovascular treatment of atherosclerotic lesions. In the case of patients with atherosclerosis showing cardiac problems, the treatment is a combination of several healthy measures: proper diet (low-fat foods), hygienic habits (no smoking), constant mild to moderate exercise, drug to prevent blood clotting and, sometimes, local treatment of the lesions (surgical operations).
Interventricular septum - The stout wall separating the lower chambers (ventricles) of the heart from one another.
Ischemia - Insufficient blood supply to a localized area, due the obstruction or the narrowing of the blood vessels to the area.
Ischemic vascular accident – This expression indicates a condition of reduced blood supply causing too little oxygen to reach the tissues (ischemia). This kind of problem may affect the coronary arteries (the vessels which bring the blood to the heart muscle), the cerebral arteries (the vessels that supply the brain) or the peripheral arteries (that provide the lower limbs with the necessary amount of blood). In general, an ischemic vascular accident is linked to the atherosclerotic process.
J
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L
LDL Cholesterol - Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL cholesterol) is the "bad" cholesterol carried within a lipoprotein in the blood. If too much LDL cholesterol circulates in the blood it can build up in the inner wall of arteries forming plaques, making these vessels stiffer and clogging them. When these events do occur a condition called atherosclerosis arises. Lowering LDL cholesterol by dietary or pharmacologic means decreases the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and death. Animal and dairy fat, hydrogenated fats from pastries and fried fast foods and high levels of dietary cholesterol can elevate LDL cholesterol.
Leukocytes – Also called white blood cells, are cells of the immune system in charge of preserving the integrity of our organism, helping the body to fight the infections. They can travel in a passive way through the circulation, or actively move using specific proteins of their cytoscheleton (their framework) to reach a specific site where their activity is needed. They are all produced by a common precursor termed hematopoietic stem cell which undergoes several types of differentiations, leading to the formation of: granular leukocytes (basophils, eosinophils and neutrophils) and non granular leukocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes).
Lipid lowering drugs – Drugs able to lower the level of the so-called bad cholesterol (LDL) and triglycerides, while increasing the level of good-cholesterol (HDL).
Lipoprotein -A biochemical complex of lipids and proteins that allows lipids travel in the blood. Many enzymes, proteins, antigens and toxins are lipoproteins.
Lymphocyte - A specific population of white blood cells that plays a large role in defending the body against disease. They can be divided into two major groups: T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes (Antibody-producing cells).
M
Mitral valve - See bicuspid valve.
Myocarditis – Uncommon inflammation of the myocardium, the muscular part of the heart. It can be caused by a bacterial or viral infection, and may lead to sudden death.
Myocardium - The muscular tissue of the heart, the contractile part that propels the blood out of this organ before relaxing and allowing the cardiac cavities to refill.